假设列名为x，表名为y，并且只需要一条执行更新的语句

UPDATE y 
SET x = CASE 
WHEN x = 1 THEN 11 
WHEN x = 3 THEN 12 
WHEN x = 5 THEN 13 
END 
WHERE x in (1,3,5)

更新：
假设排除临时表只意味着真实的表而不是表值函数。..警告，您的数组值必须以JSON形式提供

CREATE TABLE y (x INTEGER);
INSERT INTO y VALUES (1),(2),(3),(4),(5),(6),(7),(8),(9),(0);
UPDATE y SET x = json_extract(tmp.value,'$.replacement') FROM json_each('[{"value":1,"replacement":11},{"value":3,"replacement":12},{"value":5,"replacement":13}]') tmp WHERE x = json_extract(tmp.value,'$.value');
SELECT * FROM y;